Incorporating Reinforced Footings in Existing Structures

Incorporating Reinforced Footings in Existing Structures

* Choosing the Right Contractor for Carbon Fiber Foundation Repair

* Understanding Existing Foundation Issues and the Need for Reinforcement.


Okay, so you're thinking about beefing up the footings on a building that's already standing? Obtaining proper permits is necessary for any foundation repair service foundation repair service market porch. Smart move. But before you even start ordering concrete and rebar, you've *got* to get a handle on what's going on down there. We're talking about understanding the current state of your foundation – the good, the bad, and the potentially ugly.

Think of it like this: your foundation is the building's backbone. If it's got aches and pains, the whole structure suffers. We're talking cracks, settling, maybe even some leaning. These aren't always just cosmetic issues. They're often signs of deeper problems, like soil erosion, poor drainage, or even seismic activity. Ignoring them is like putting a Band-Aid on a broken leg.

That's where understanding the *need* for reinforcement comes in. Why are you even considering reinforced footings in the first place? Is the existing foundation undersized for the load it's carrying? Are you planning an addition that's going to add extra weight? Or maybe you've just noticed some worrying signs of decay and want to proactively strengthen things.

Whatever the reason, a thorough assessment is crucial. That means bringing in a qualified structural engineer to do a proper inspection. They'll look at the soil conditions, the existing foundation's design, and any signs of distress. They'll also be able to tell you if reinforcement is the right solution and, if so, what kind of reinforcement is needed.

Skipping this step is like flying blind. You might end up spending a lot of money on a fix that doesn't address the real problem, or worse, that actually makes things worse. So, before you start even thinking about digging, get a clear understanding of the existing foundation issues and the *why* behind needing that reinforcement. It's the only way to ensure you're building on solid ground, literally.

* What are Reinforced Footings and Their Benefits?


Okay, so you're thinking about beefing up the foundation of an existing building with reinforced footings, huh? Smart move. Let's talk about what those are and why you'd even bother.

Basically, a reinforced footing is a concrete base, usually wider than the wall it supports, that's got steel reinforcement – rebar, typically – embedded inside. Think of it like adding extra muscle to your foundation. The concrete gives you compressive strength; it's great at handling being squashed. But it's not so hot at resisting tension, like bending or pulling. That's where the steel comes in. The rebar acts like internal tendons, taking up those tensile forces and keeping the whole thing from cracking or failing.

Now, why would you want to go through all the trouble of adding reinforced footings to a building that's already standing? Well, there are a few good reasons. Maybe you're planning an addition. Adding a second story, for example, puts a lot more weight on the existing foundation. Without reinforced footings, it might not be able to handle the load, leading to settling, cracks in the walls, and a whole host of other problems you definitely don't want.

Or maybe the soil conditions around your building have changed. Perhaps there's been erosion, or maybe the water table has fluctuated. These kinds of things can weaken the existing foundation over time. Reinforced footings can provide a much-needed boost in stability.

Another common reason is if the original footings were just inadequate to begin with. Maybe they weren't built to code, or maybe the soil was misjudged during the initial construction. Adding reinforcement now can correct those past mistakes and prevent future headaches.

What are the benefits, then, in a nutshell? Increased load-bearing capacity is the big one. Reinforced footings can handle significantly more weight than plain concrete footings. They also improve the overall stability of the structure, reducing the risk of settling and cracking. And, ultimately, they extend the lifespan of your building by protecting the foundation from deterioration. It's an investment in the long-term health and safety of your property. So, while it might seem like a daunting task, incorporating reinforced footings can be a really worthwhile project, especially when dealing with existing structures that need a little extra help.

* Assessing the Suitability of Reinforced Footings for Specific Residential Properties.


Okay, let's talk about reinforced footings and how to figure out if they're a good fit for your house, especially if we're talking about adding them to a structure that's already standing. It's not like picking out new curtains; it's a serious decision that needs careful consideration.

Basically, when you're looking at reinforcing footings, you're often trying to solve a problem. Maybe the original footings are undersized for the load they're carrying. Perhaps you're seeing cracks, settling, or other signs of foundation distress. Or, you might be planning an addition, like a second story, that's going to add significant weight to the existing structure. Reinforced footings can be a way to strengthen and stabilize things.

But here's the thing: slapping in some reinforced concrete isn't a one-size-fits-all solution. You really need to assess the specific situation of the property. That means getting a professional structural engineer involved. They'll look at a whole bunch of things.

First, the soil. What kind of soil are we dealing with? Is it dense and stable, or loose and sandy? The soil's bearing capacity – how much weight it can support – is crucial. Soil tests are often necessary to get accurate data.

Next, the existing structure. How old is it? What's its condition? What are the original foundation plans (if they exist)? Understanding the existing load paths and how the house is currently supported is vital before adding more weight or altering the foundation.

Then there's the design itself. The engineer will calculate the loads the footings need to handle, taking into account the existing weight of the house, any new loads from additions, and even things like wind and seismic activity. They'll then design the reinforced footings to meet those requirements, specifying the size, shape, and amount of reinforcing steel needed.

Finally, there's the practical side of things. Can the work even be done? Is there enough access to the footings? Are there underground utilities that need to be relocated? What are the potential risks and disruptions to the occupants of the house during construction?

So, assessing the suitability of reinforced footings boils down to a thorough investigation and careful analysis. It's about understanding the soil, the structure, the loads, and the practical limitations of the project. Getting expert advice from a qualified structural engineer is absolutely essential to ensure a safe, effective, and long-lasting solution. You don't want to cut corners here; a properly designed and installed reinforced footing can save you a lot of headaches (and money) down the road.

* The Reinforced Footing Installation Process: A Step-by-Step Guide.


Okay, so you're tackling the beast that is adding reinforced footings to an existing structure? That's no small feat! Basically, you're giving the old girl some new, stronger legs. Think of it like this: the original foundation might be struggling, maybe it's showing its age, or you're planning some serious renovations that'll add a lot of weight. Reinforced footings are the answer – a way to beef up the base and prevent future headaches.

The process, in a nutshell, goes something like this. First, you've gotta do your homework. That means soil testing, understanding the existing foundation's condition, and figuring out exactly how much extra support you need. This is where you bring in the professionals – engineers and experienced contractors. You absolutely don't want to wing this!

Then comes the digging. You carefully excavate around the existing foundation where you'll be pouring the new footings. This has to be done with precision to avoid undermining the current structure. Shoring and bracing might be necessary, depending on the soil and the building's design. Safety first, always.

Next, you'll build the formwork – the molds that will hold the concrete. Inside these forms, you'll place the reinforcing steel, the rebar. This is what gives the concrete its strength and prevents cracking. It's gotta be properly spaced and tied together, following the engineer's specifications to the letter.

Finally, the concrete is poured. It's vibrated to remove air pockets and ensure it fills the forms completely. After it's cured (dried and hardened), the forms are removed, and you backfill around the new footings.

It sounds simple when you break it down like that, but each step is crucial. The key takeaway? Planning and professional expertise are non-negotiable. This isn't a DIY project for the faint of heart. Get the right people involved, follow the plans meticulously, and you'll end up with a foundation that's ready to handle whatever you throw at it. Good luck!

* Materials and Techniques Used in Reinforced Footing Construction.


Okay, so you're thinking about adding reinforced footings to an existing building, huh? Smart move. That foundation is the backbone, and beefing it up can be a real lifesaver. But let's talk about the nitty-gritty: what actually goes into building these reinforced footings when you're dealing with an existing structure. It's not like starting from scratch, that's for sure.

First off, the materials. Concrete is king, naturally. But not just any concrete. We're talking high-strength stuff, designed to handle serious loads. The specific mix will depend on the soil conditions, the building's weight, and all that engineering jazz. And then there's the rebar – the reinforcing steel. This isn't your garden fence wire! We're talking meticulously designed cages of steel bars, strategically placed within the concrete to provide tensile strength and resist cracking. Think of it like the bones in your body, giving the concrete structure its backbone. The grade and size of the rebar are crucial calculations, based again on the load and the soil.

Now, the techniques. This is where things get interesting, especially when you're working around an existing building. You can't just bulldoze everything! Underpinning is the name of the game in many cases. This means systematically excavating sections of the existing footing, pouring new reinforced concrete sections, and then repeating the process until the entire footing is reinforced. It's like performing surgery on the building's foundation, bit by bit. There are different underpinning methods, like mass concrete underpinning, beam and base underpinning, and even pile underpinning for really tricky situations. The choice depends on the soil conditions, the load, and access constraints.

Another technique you might see is soil nailing. This involves drilling into the soil around the existing footing and inserting steel bars (the "nails") that are then grouted in place. This helps stabilize the soil and prevent collapse during excavation. Think of it like giving the soil a firm hug to keep it from crumbling.

And let's not forget the importance of proper excavation and shoring. You don't want the building to collapse while you're working on the foundation! Shoring uses temporary supports to hold up the existing structure while the new footings are being constructed. It's all about safety first.

So, to recap: high-strength concrete and carefully designed rebar are the key materials. Underpinning, soil nailing, and careful excavation with shoring are crucial techniques. It's a complex process, requiring experienced engineers and contractors. But if done right, reinforcing those footings can give an existing building a whole new lease on life. It's a worthwhile investment in the long run.

* Potential Challenges and Solutions During Installation.


Incorporating reinforced footings into existing structures, while often necessary for stability or expansion projects, isn't always a walk in the park. You're essentially performing structural surgery on a building that's already breathing, and that comes with its own set of potential headaches.

One major challenge? Access. Digging around existing foundations can be incredibly cramped and awkward. Think tight spaces, existing utilities snaking around unpredictably, and the ever-present risk of disturbing the surrounding soil. The solution here is careful planning and often, specialized equipment. Mini-excavators and hand tools become your best friends. Ground penetrating radar can help locate those pesky unseen utilities before you accidentally sever a crucial gas line.

Another potential issue is the existing structure itself. Is it structurally sound enough to handle the excavation and the new load distribution? You might uncover unforeseen damage like crumbling concrete or corroded rebar. A thorough structural assessment is crucial before you even break ground. If weaknesses are found, temporary shoring and reinforcement might be needed to prevent collapse during the construction phase. This adds to the cost and complexity, but it's far preferable to a catastrophic failure.

Then there's the challenge of tying the new footings into the old. A strong, durable connection is vital for the long-term integrity of the structure. This often involves techniques like epoxy-anchored dowels or carefully engineered concrete overlays. The key here is to ensure proper surface preparation and adherence to strict bonding procedures. Skipping steps or cutting corners can lead to delamination and ultimately, structural weakness.

Finally, let's not forget about the neighbors. Construction noise, dust, and vibrations can be a major source of complaint, especially in densely populated areas. Open communication is key. Keeping neighbors informed about the project timeline, noise mitigation measures, and dust control protocols can go a long way in preventing friction. Sometimes, even simple gestures like offering to clean up any dust that settles on their property can make a big difference.

In short, incorporating reinforced footings into existing structures is a complex undertaking. But by anticipating potential challenges, investing in thorough planning, and employing appropriate solutions, you can ensure a successful and structurally sound outcome. It's all about respecting the existing structure and the surrounding environment, and remembering that careful preparation is always the best foundation for success.

* Cost Considerations and Return on Investment for Homeowners.


Let's talk money, shall we? Specifically, how much it's going to cost you to beef up those footings under your house, and whether it's actually worth it in the long run. Incorporating reinforced footings into an existing structure isn't exactly a weekend DIY project, and it definitely comes with a price tag. You're looking at costs for engineering assessments (gotta know what you're dealing with!), excavation, materials like concrete and rebar (lots of rebar!), labor, and potential landscaping repairs afterward. Think of it like this: you're essentially giving your house a stronger foundation, literally.

Now, the upfront cost can feel daunting. But let's consider the return on investment. Are you doing this because your house is showing signs of foundation trouble – cracks in the walls, doors and windows sticking, uneven floors? In that case, this isn't just an improvement, it's preventative medicine. Ignoring foundation issues is like ignoring a leaky faucet; it just gets worse and more expensive over time. Reinforced footings can stabilize your home, prevent further damage, and avoid potentially catastrophic and incredibly costly repairs down the line. Think of it as an investment in the structural integrity and longevity of your biggest asset.

Furthermore, a properly reinforced foundation can increase your property value. Potential buyers are increasingly savvy, and they're looking for homes that are structurally sound. A history of proactive foundation work can be a major selling point, giving them peace of mind and potentially fetching you a higher price when you decide to sell.

Finally, let's not forget the intangible benefits. Peace of mind is worth something, right? Knowing your home is stable and secure, protected from the elements and the slow creep of time, is a valuable feeling. So, while the initial cost of incorporating reinforced footings might sting a bit, consider it a long-term investment in your home's health, your property value, and ultimately, your peace of mind. Do your research, get multiple quotes, and weigh the costs against the potential benefits. It might just be the smartest money you ever spend on your house.

* Maintaining Reinforced Footings for Long-Term Stability.


So, you've gone and added reinforced footings to an existing structure, smart move. It's like giving the old house a new pair of really sturdy boots. But, you can't just slap them on and forget about it. Maintaining those footings is absolutely crucial for long-term stability. Think of it less like a one-time fix and more like a commitment to the building's future health.

What does that commitment look like? Well, first off, regular inspections. We're talking about checking for cracks, settlement, or any signs of water damage. Water is the enemy, always seeping in and causing havoc. If you spot something, don't ignore it! A small crack today can become a major problem down the road. Think of it like a cavity; you get it filled early, you avoid a root canal later.

Then there's the surrounding soil. Make sure drainage is working properly. Water pooling around the footings can weaken the soil and compromise the whole system. And keep an eye on vegetation. Tree roots, while seemingly innocent, can burrow under the footings and cause significant issues over time.

Finally, remember that any modifications to the structure above can impact the footings below. A new addition, a change in load-bearing walls – these things can add stress. Consult with an engineer to ensure the footings can handle the added burden. Basically, maintaining reinforced footings is about being proactive and paying attention. It's about safeguarding your investment and ensuring the building stands strong for years to come. It's not glamorous, maybe, but it's essential.



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Foundation(s) or The Foundation(s) may refer to:

Common uses

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  • Foundation (cosmetics), a skin-coloured makeup cream applied to the face
  • Foundation (engineering), the element of a structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground
  • Foundation (evidence), a legal term
  • Foundation (nonprofit), a type of charitable organization
    • Foundation (United States law), a type of charitable organization in the U.S.
    • Private foundation, a charitable organization that might not qualify as a public charity by government standards

Arts, entertainment, and media

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Film and TV

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  • The Foundation, a film about 1960s-1970s Aboriginal history in Sydney, featuring Gary Foley
  • The Foundation (1984 TV series), a Hong Kong series
  • The Foundation (Canadian TV series), a 2009–2010 Canadian sitcom
  • "The Foundation" (Seinfeld), an episode
  • Foundation (TV series), an Apple TV+ series adapted from Isaac Asimov's novels

Games

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  • Foundation (video game), a city-building game (2025)
  • Foundation, an Amiga video game
  • The Foundation, a character in 2017 game Fortnite Battle Royale

Literature

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  • Foundation (book series), a series of science fiction books by Isaac Asimov
    • Foundation (Asimov novel), the first book in Asimov's series, published in 1951
  • Foundation (b-boy book), by Joseph G. Schloss
  • Foundation (Lackey novel), a 2008 fantasy novel by Mercedes Lackey

Music

[edit]
  • The Foundations, a British soul group
  • Foundations (EP), by Serj Tankian

Albums

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  • Foundation (Brand Nubian album)
  • Foundation (Breakage album)
  • Foundation (Doc Watson album)
  • Foundation (Magnum album)
  • Foundation (M.O.P. album)
  • Foundation, a 1997 compilation album by Die Krupps
  • The Foundation (Geto Boys album)
  • The Foundation (Pep Love album), 2005
  • The Foundation (Zac Brown Band album)
  • The Foundations (album), by 4 Corners

Songs

[edit]
  • "Foundation", a 1983 song by Spandau Ballet from the album True
  • "Foundation", a 1998 song by Brand Nubian from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2009 song by M.O.P. from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2010 song by Breakage from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2015 song by Years & Years from Communion
  • "Foundations" (song), by Kate Nash
  • "The Foundation" (song), by Xzibit

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

[edit]
  • Foundation – The International Review of Science Fiction, a literary journal
  • The Foundation Trilogy (BBC Radio), a radio adaption of Asimov's series
  • The SCP Foundation, a fictional organization that is often referred to in-universe as "The Foundation"

Education

[edit]
  • Foundation degree, a British academic qualification
  • Foundation school, a type of school in England and Wales
  • Foundation Stage, a stage of education for children aged 3 to 5 in England
  • University Foundation Programme, a British university entrance course

Science and technology

[edit]
  • Foundation (framework), a free collection of tools for creating websites and web applications by ZURB
  • Foundation Fieldbus, a communications system
  • Foundation Kit, an Apple API

Companies

[edit]
  • Foundation Medicine, a genomic profiling company

See also

[edit]
  • All pages with titles beginning with Foundation
  • All pages with titles beginning with The Foundation
  • Foundations of mathematics, theory of mathematics

 

Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.
Precast concrete retaining wall
A typical cross-section of a slope used in two-dimensional analyzes.

Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.

Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, coastal engineering, and offshore construction. The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas. However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a specialty of geology.

History

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Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings. Dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent, and the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley—provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control. As cities expanded, structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations. The ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and the discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on experience.[1]

Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized the "natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose. Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type.[1][2]

The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb, a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, , and friction , where is the normal stress on the slip plane and is the friction angle of the soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory. Although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today.[3]

In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law, describing the flow of fluids in a porous media. Joseph Boussinesq, a mathematician and physicist, developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth in the ground. William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification.[1][2] In 1885, Osborne Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and contraction of loose granular materials.

Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl von Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer and geologist. Considered by many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is controlled by effective stress.[4] Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due to consolidation.[1][3][5] Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of Poroelasticity.

In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil. Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth, with the publication of On the Yielding of Soils in 1958, established the interrelationships between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil.[6]

In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of the available formulations and experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior.

Roles

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Geotechnical investigation

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Geotechnical engineers investigate and determine the properties of subsurface conditions and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.[7][8]

Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying and adjacent to a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of retrieved soil samples. Sometimes, geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar). Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects.[9]

Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry. Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist. Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone penetration test). The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense. Still, they are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.

Various soil samplers exist to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The standard penetration test, which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used to collect less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior but expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine, and rock fracture zones.[10]

Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical-scale models of geotechnical problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil because soil's strength and stiffness are susceptible to the confining pressure. The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models.

Foundation design

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The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site. Generally, geotechnical engineers first estimate the magnitude and location of loads to be supported before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and determine the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing. Following this, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.[11]

Earthworks

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A compactor/roller operated by U.S. Navy Seabees

Geotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks, which include ground improvement,[11] slope stabilization, and slope stability analysis.

Ground improvement

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Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a larger area, increasing the soil's load-bearing capacity. Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce direct and long-term costs.[12]

Slope stabilization

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Simple slope slip section.

Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve slope stability using engineering methods. Slope stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making it unstable. Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes to increase stability.

Slope stability analysis
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Stability analysis is needed to design engineered slopes and estimate the risk of slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining the conditions under which the topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure.[13] If the interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required. Typically, the interface's exact geometry is unknown, and a simplified interface geometry is assumed. Finite slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models.

Sub-disciplines

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Geosynthetics

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A collage of geosynthetic products.

Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs. This includes geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, geocells, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Their main functions include drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, and containment.

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end-use, although they are frequently used together. Some reinforcement geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength.[14] These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection and coastal engineering.[15]

Offshore

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Platforms offshore Mexico.

Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore engineering). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures.[16]

There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering.[16][17] Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on the seabed are more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards; and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design.

In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles and water.[18][19] Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for piers, jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems.[20]

Observational method

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First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck, the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The method aims to achieve a greater overall economy without compromising safety by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable.[21] Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction, which in turn can be modified per the findings. The method was described by Peck as "learn-as-you-go".[22]

The observational method may be described as follows:[22]

  1. General exploration sufficient to establish the rough nature, pattern, and properties of deposits.
  2. Assessment of the most probable conditions and the most unfavorable conceivable deviations.
  3. Creating the design based on a working hypothesis of behavior anticipated under the most probable conditions.
  4. Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds and calculating their anticipated values based on the working hypothesis under the most unfavorable conditions.
  5. Selection, in advance, of a course of action or design modification for every foreseeable significant deviation of the observational findings from those predicted.
  6. Measurement of quantities and evaluation of actual conditions.
  7. Design modification per actual conditions

The observational method is suitable for construction that has already begun when an unexpected development occurs or when a failure or accident looms or has already happened. It is unsuitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction.[22]

See also

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  • Civil engineering
  • Deep Foundations Institute
  • Earthquake engineering
  • Earth structure
  • Effective stress
  • Engineering geology
  • Geological Engineering
  • Geoprofessions
  • Hydrogeology
  • International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
  • Karl von Terzaghi
  • Land reclamation
  • Landfill
  • Mechanically stabilized earth
  • Offshore geotechnical engineering
  • Rock mass classifications
  • Sediment control
  • Seismology
  • Soil mechanics
  • Soil physics
  • Soil science

 

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Das, Braja (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Thomson Learning.
  2. ^ a b Budhu, Muni (2007). Soil Mechanics and Foundations. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-43117-6.
  3. ^ a b Disturbed soil properties and geotechnical design, Schofield, Andrew N., Thomas Telford, 2006. ISBN 0-7277-2982-9
  4. ^ Guerriero V., Mazzoli S. (2021). "Theory of Effective Stress in Soil and Rock and Implications for Fracturing Processes: A Review". Geosciences. 11 (3): 119. Bibcode:2021Geosc..11..119G. doi:10.3390/geosciences11030119.
  5. ^ Soil Mechanics, Lambe, T.William and Whitman, Robert V., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, John Wiley & Sons., 1969. ISBN 0-471-51192-7
  6. ^ Soil Behavior and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Wood, David Muir, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-33782-8
  7. ^ Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4
  8. ^ Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
  9. ^ Deep Scan Tech (2023): Deep Scan Tech uncovers hidden structures at the site of Denmark's tallest building.
  10. ^ "Geofrost Coring". GEOFROST. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
  11. ^ a b Han, Jie (2015). Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement. Wiley. ISBN 9781118421307.
  12. ^ RAJU, V. R. (2010). Ground Improvement Technologies and Case Histories. Singapore: Research Publishing Services. p. 809. ISBN 978-981-08-3124-0. Ground Improvement – Principles And Applications In Asia.
  13. ^ Pariseau, William G. (2011). Design analysis in rock mechanics. CRC Press.
  14. ^ Hegde, A.M. and Palsule P.S. (2020), Performance of Geosynthetics Reinforced Subgrade Subjected to Repeated Vehicle Loads: Experimental and Numerical Studies. Front. Built Environ. 6:15. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.00015/full.
  15. ^ Koerner, Robert M. (2012). Designing with Geosynthetics (6th Edition, Vol. 1 ed.). Xlibris. ISBN 9781462882892.
  16. ^ a b Dean, E.T.R. (2010). Offshore Geotechnical Engineering – Principles and Practice. Thomas Telford, Reston, VA, 520 p.
  17. ^ Randolph, M. and Gourvenec, S., 2011. Offshore geotechnical engineering. Spon Press, N.Y., 550 p.
  18. ^ Das, B.M., 2010. Principles of geotechnical engineering. Cengage Learning, Stamford, 666 p.
  19. ^ Atkinson, J., 2007. The mechanics of soils and foundations. Taylor & Francis, N.Y., 442 p.
  20. ^ Floating Offshore Wind Turbines: Responses in a Sea state – Pareto Optimal Designs and Economic Assessment, P. Sclavounos et al., October 2007.
  21. ^ Nicholson, D, Tse, C and Penny, C. (1999). The Observational Method in ground engineering – principles and applications. Report 185, CIRIA, London.
  22. ^ a b c Peck, R.B (1969). Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19, No. 1, pp. 171-187.

References

[edit]
  • Bates and Jackson, 1980, Glossary of Geology: American Geological Institute.
  • Krynine and Judd, 1957, Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics: McGraw-Hill, New York.
  • Ventura, Pierfranco, 2019, Fondazioni, Volume 1, Modellazioni statiche e sismiche, Hoepli, Milano
[edit]
  • Worldwide Geotechnical Literature Database

 

Interior of part of a damaged home in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina
Family photographs damaged by flooding
A smaller and more minor water spot caused by rainwater leaking through a roof

Water damage describes various possible losses caused by water intruding where it will enable attack of a material or system by destructive processes such as rotting of wood, mold growth, bacteria growth, rusting of steel, swelling of composite woods, de-laminating of materials such as plywood, short-circuiting of electrical devices, etc.

The damage may be imperceptibly slow and minor such as water spots that could eventually mar a surface, or it may be instantaneous and catastrophic such as burst pipes and flooding. However fast it occurs, water damage is a major contributor to loss of property.

An insurance policy may or may not cover the costs associated with water damage and the process of water damage restoration. While a common cause of residential water damage is often the failure of a sump pump, many homeowner's insurance policies do not cover the associated costs without an addendum which adds to the monthly premium of the policy. Often the verbiage of this addendum is similar to "Sewer and Drain Coverage".

In the United States, those individuals who are affected by wide-scale flooding may have the ability to apply for government and FEMA grants through the Individual Assistance program.[1] On a larger level, businesses, cities, and communities can apply to the FEMA Public Assistance program for funds to assist after a large flood. For example, the city of Fond du Lac Wisconsin received $1.2 million FEMA grant after flooding in June 2008. The program allows the city to purchase the water damaged properties, demolish the structures, and turn the former land into public green space.[citation needed]

Causes

[edit]

Water damage can originate by different sources such as a broken dishwasher hose, a washing machine overflow, a dishwasher leakage, broken/leaking pipes, flood waters, groundwater seepage, building envelope failures (leaking roof, windows, doors, siding, etc.) and clogged toilets. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, 13.7% of all water used in the home today can be attributed to plumbing leaks.[2] On average that is approximately 10,000 gallons of water per year wasted by leaks for each US home. A tiny, 1/8-inch crack in a pipe can release up to 250 gallons of water a day.[3] According to Claims Magazine in August 2000, broken water pipes ranked second to hurricanes in terms of both the number of homes damaged and the amount of claims (on average $50,000 per insurance claim[citation needed]) costs in the US.[4] Experts suggest that homeowners inspect and replace worn pipe fittings and hose connections to all household appliances that use water at least once a year. This includes washing machines, dishwashers, kitchen sinks, and bathroom lavatories, refrigerator icemakers, water softeners, and humidifiers. A few US companies offer whole-house leak protection systems utilizing flow-based technologies. A number of insurance companies offer policyholders reduced rates for installing a whole-house leak protection system.

As far as insurance coverage is concerned, damage caused by surface water intrusion to the dwelling is considered flood damage and is normally excluded from coverage under traditional homeowners' insurance. Surface water is water that enters the dwelling from the surface of the ground because of inundation or insufficient drainage and causes loss to the dwelling. Coverage for surface water intrusion[5] to the dwelling would usually require a separate flood insurance policy.

Categories

[edit]

There are three basic categories of water damage, based on the level of contamination.

Category 1 Water - Refers to a source of water that does not pose substantial threat to humans and classified as "clean water". Examples are broken water supply lines, tub or sink overflows or appliance malfunctions that involves water supply lines.

Category 2 Water - Refers to a source of water that contains a significant degree of chemical, biological or physical contaminants and causes discomfort or sickness when consumed or even exposed to. Known as "grey water". This type carries microorganisms and nutrients of micro-organisms. Examples are toilet bowls with urine (no feces), sump pump failures, seepage due to hydrostatic failure and water discharge from dishwashers or washing machines.

Category 3 Water - Known as "black water" and is grossly unsanitary. This water contains unsanitary agents, harmful bacteria and fungi, causing severe discomfort or sickness. Type 3 category are contaminated water sources that affect the indoor environment. This category includes water sources from sewage, seawater, rising water from rivers or streams, storm surge, ground surface water or standing water. Category 2 Water or Grey Water that is not promptly removed from the structure and or have remained stagnant may be re classified as Category 3 Water. Toilet back flows that originates from beyond the toilet trap is considered black water contamination regardless of visible content or color.[6]

Classes

[edit]

Class of water damage is determined by the probable rate of evaporation based on the type of materials affected, or wet, in the room or space that was flooded. Determining the class of water damage is an important first step, and will determine the amount and type of equipment utilized to dry-down the structure.[7]

Class 1 - Slow Rate of Evaporation. Affects only a portion of a room. Materials have a low permeance/porosity. Minimum moisture is absorbed by the materials. **IICRC s500 2016 update adds that class 1 be indicated when <5% of the total square footage of a room (ceiling+walls+floor) are affected **

Class 2 - Fast Rate of Evaporation. Water affects the entire room of carpet and cushion. May have wicked up the walls, but not more than 24 inches. **IICRC s500 2016 update adds that class 2 be indicated when 5% to 40% of the total square footage of a room (ceiling+walls+floor) are affected **

Class 3 - Fastest Rate of Evaporation. Water generally comes from overhead, affecting the entire area; walls, ceilings, insulation, carpet, cushion, etc. **IICRC s500 2016 update adds that class 3 be indicated when >40% of the total square footage of a room (ceiling+walls+floor) are affected **

Class 4 - Specialty Drying Situations. Involves materials with a very low permeance/porosity, such as hardwood floors, concrete, crawlspaces, gypcrete, plaster, etc. Drying generally requires very low specific humidity to accomplish drying.

Restoration

[edit]

Water damage restoration can be performed by property management teams, building maintenance personnel, or by the homeowners themselves; however, contacting a certified professional water damage restoration specialist is often regarded as the safest way to restore water damaged property. Certified professional water damage restoration specialists utilize psychrometrics to monitor the drying process.[8]

Standards and regulation

[edit]

While there are currently no government regulations in the United States dictating procedures, two certifying bodies, the Institute of Inspection Cleaning and Restoration Certification (IICRC) and the RIA, do recommend standards of care. The current IICRC standard is ANSI/IICRC S500-2021.[9] It is the collaborative work of the IICRC, SCRT, IEI, IAQA, and NADCA.

Fire and Water Restoration companies are regulated by the appropriate state's Department of Consumer Affairs - usually the state contractors license board. In California, all Fire and Water Restoration companies must register with the California Contractors State License Board.[10] Presently, the California Contractors State License Board has no specific classification for "water and fire damage restoration."

Procedures

[edit]

Water damage restoration is often prefaced by a loss assessment and evaluation of affected materials. The damaged area is inspected with water sensing equipment such as probes and other infrared tools in order to determine the source of the damage and possible extent of areas affected. Emergency mitigation services are the first order of business. Controlling the source of water, removal of non-salvageable materials, water extraction and pre-cleaning of impacted materials are all part of the mitigation process. Restoration services would then be rendered to the property in order to dry the structure, stabilize building materials, sanitize any affected or cross-contaminated areas, and deodorize all affected areas and materials. After the labor is completed, water damage equipment including air movers, air scrubbers, dehumidifiers, wood floor drying systems, and sub-floor drying equipment is left in the residence. The goal of the drying process is to stabilize the moisture content of impacted materials below 15%, the generally accepted threshold for microbial amplification. Industry standards state that drying vendors should return at regular time intervals, preferably every twenty-four hours, to monitor the equipment, temperature, humidity, and moisture content of the affected walls and contents.[6] In conclusion, key aspects of water damage restoration include fast action, adequate equipment, moisture measurements, and structural drying. Dehumidification is especially crucial for structural components affected by water damage, such as wooden beams, flooring, and drywall.

See also

[edit]
  • Indoor mold

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Individual Disaster Assistance". DisasterAssistance.gov. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
  2. ^ "How We Use Water". 16 January 2017.
  3. ^ The University of Maine Corporate Extension – www.umext.maine.edu
  4. ^ Herndon Jr., Everette L.; Yang, Chin S. (August 2000). "Mold & Mildew: A Creeping Catastrophe". Claims Magazine. Archived from the original on 2000-08-15. Retrieved November 4, 2016.
  5. ^ Moisture Control Guidance for Building Design, Construction and Maintenance. December 2013.
  6. ^ "Water Damage Restoration Guideline" (PDF). Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-26. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  7. ^ "The Basics Of Water Damage Restoration Training". www.iicrc.org. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  8. ^ "Chapter 6: Psychrometry and the Science of Drying". IICRC Standards Subscription Site. Institute of Inspection, Cleaning and Restoration Certification. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  9. ^ "ANSI/IICRC S500 Water Damage Restoration". IICRC. 22 December 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  10. ^ "California Contractors State License Board". State of California. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
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Reviews for


Jeffery James

(5)

Very happy with my experience. They were prompt and followed through, and very helpful in fixing the crack in my foundation.

Sarah McNeily

(5)

USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

Jim de Leon

(5)

It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

Chris Abplanalp

(5)

USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

Dave Kari

(5)

What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

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Frequently Asked Questions

The cost of reinforced footings varies depending on factors such as the size of your home, the depth and width of the required footings, soil conditions, site accessibility, and the extent of excavation needed. Other factors may include the amount of steel reinforcement required and local building codes. We will provide a detailed estimate after a thorough inspection of your foundation and property.